علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
sajjad aydinloo
Abstract
A Review of the Four Controversial Verses of Shahnameh1 about Zahhāk2 بکُشتی، به گُشنی یا به کُشتی؟)) Sajjad Aydenloo Associate Professor, Payame Noor University of Urmia, E-mail: aydenloo@gmail.com Abstract Ferdowsi, in the early kingdom of Zahak has ...
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A Review of the Four Controversial Verses of Shahnameh1 about Zahhāk2 بکُشتی، به گُشنی یا به کُشتی؟)) Sajjad Aydenloo Associate Professor, Payame Noor University of Urmia, E-mail: aydenloo@gmail.com Abstract Ferdowsi, in the early kingdom of Zahak has written four bits in expression of his concupiscible unconventional: پس آیین ضحّاک وارونهخوی ز مردان جنگی یکی خواستی کجا نامور دختری خوبروی پرستنده کردیش در پیش خویش چنان بُد که چون میبُدیش آرزوی بکشتی که با دیو برخاستی(؟) به پرده اندرون پاک، بیگفتوگوی نه رسم کییبُد نه آیین کیش The main difficulty of this piece is in the recording, reading and meaning of second hemistich of second line and then the connection or semantic independence of the two initial bits and the last two bits. In Shahnameh manuscripts, there are ten different recordings for second- hemistich of second bit and commentators and researchers have suggested ten meaning for it. The writer with criticism of the various recordings, readings and meanings based on reasons and witnesses like: writing "bekoshti" in most of the manuscripts, the existence of similar hemistich in terms of syntactically and semantically elsewhere in Shahnameh, paying attention to the traditional reception of some scribes and readers of the Shahnameh through the manuscript copies of these verses, explaining the report in “Bondaheshn” and … recording and reading “be koshtikeba div barkhasti” knows more likely and for every four bits continuously (enjambment), this interpretation is suggested: Zahhak when his lust was excited the beautiful girl and virgin was given to a man of warrior up against his eyes sexual intercourse with that girland Ferdowsi's intention of “ayine Zahhakevaroonehkhooy” this is the unbecoming work. Key words: Shahnameh, correction, reading, meaning, Zahak. At the beginning of Zahhāk's kingdom in Shahnameh, after referring to the prevalence of the oppression of his time and killing two young people every day to feed the snakes on Zahhāk's shoulders, and solving the problem by Armaeel et Garmaeelin that case, there are four verses concerning one of the Zahhāk's perverse behaviors, which appear in the second edition of Dr. Khalequi-Motlagas as follows: پس آیین ضحّاک وارونهخوی ز مردان جنگی یکی خواستی کجا نامور دختری خوبروی پرستنده کردیش در پیش خویش چنان بُد که چون میبُدیش آرزوی بکشتی که با دیو برخاستی(؟) به پرده اندرون پاک، بیگفتوگوی نه رسم کییبُد نه آیین کیش At the end of the second hemistich of the second verse,the sign (?) indicates that it is written and its meaning, -the first verse and the other two verses - is a place of doubt and need to be investigated. From the seventh to eleventh centuries, the above mentioned hemistich in the manuscripts of Shahnameh has been recorded in a number of different ways, which indicates its ambiguity. These different forms are as follows: 1. بکشتی چو با دیو برخاستی 2. بکشتی که باد تو برخاستی 3. بگفتی و با او بیاراستی 4. که کشتی چو با دیو برخاستی 5. بکشتی چو بازو برافراختی 6. به گیتی چو با دیو برخاستی 7. بکشتی و با دیو برخاستی But the prevailing recording of the versions is: «بکشتی که با دیو برخاستی» And all the editors and the authors kept this written version with the same spelling of the manuscript in the vast majority of low-credibile, semi-authoritative or credible editions of Shahnameh as mentioned above. The main point of the four verses in question about Zahhāk is in the recording, reading and meaning of the second hemistich of the second verse, and the other is the relation or the lack of semantic communication between the first and second verses with the two others (third and fourth). At the second hemistich of the first verse, the word "wish" means "sexual desire". In this verse, the verb (می‌بدیش) should also be read as a past continuous tense. There are ten different views which have been taken into account on the fundamental difficulty of these verses, namely, recording, reading and meaning of the second hemistich of the second verse of Shahnameh, many of which are well illustrated by the degree of complexity and ambiguity of the subject. Some of the most important reports are: 1. In 1989, in his critique of Dr. Khaleqi-Motlag's first correctional volume and in order to record «بکشتی» in the majority of the editions, Dr. Ravaghi proposed «گُشنی» which is Dr. Quiasi's correction, and he reported the second verse in this way: "Whenever a wish and inner desire was dominated over Zahhāk and whenever a wish-demon smiled on him, he would call in one of the warriors to mate with". Dr. Quiasi's correction and Dr. Ravaghi's suggested meaning, which has been accepted and repeated by a number of other reserchers, attracted the attention of the scholars of Shahnameh to these verses of the Zahhāk monarchy and has led to the opening of various discussions about them. 2. The late Dr. Joweiny, in his description of the first volume of the booklet of the Florence edition, kept the word «بکشتی»in this manuscript, but he meant it «به کشتی گرفتن». According to a narrative of Bundahishn3, Zahhāk forces the demon to have a relationship with a young woman and a young man with a fairy in front of her look, and considering the fact that the four verses related to Zahhāk are not exactly consistent with Bundahishn report, these four verses have been mutually interconnected. "Zahhāk whose behavior was abnormal, whenever his inner desire and passion hits him, he calls in one of the brave men on the ship who was in debate with his opponent demon, and the beautiful girl sitting somewhere calmly and quietly, made her obey the warrior to have a sexual relation in front of him, that this act was neither a custom of kings, nor a religion". 3. Dr. Khatibi accepts Dr. Guiasi's correction of «گُشنی», and according to two witnesses from Middle Persian, it means "the intercourse of the man with the demon", and "Demon" is considered here as a female species of these creatures. He has reported the first two verses independently of the third and fourth ones with these preliminaries and attention to the narrative of Bundahishn (we noticed that Dr. Joweiny, for the first time, had been careful to discuss these verses of Shahnameh). "Therefore, Zahhāk's evil spirit was such that whenever he wished, he would summon one of the warriors for having a sexual relation with the female demon in front of him". 4. Dr. Khaleqi-Motlaq in«آویزه‌ای بر یادداشت‌های شاهنامه», which is based on their previous descriptions, suggests that we might be able to read the word«بکشتی»in the form of «به کشتی», and the verb«برخاستن»means«مقابله کردن، پای داشتن». With this kind of reading and according to his persumption, Zahhāk wrestles with a warrior. "So Zahhāk, as a demon had a quirky behavior and whenever he wished, he would be able to summon a war man to wrestle with himself, whether he would force a demon to wrestle with". According to the author, there is not a firm bond with the independent view of two final verses and the reports of those who passed with the inversion of Zahhāk, and the excitement of his desire (lust) as stated in the first verse, and the hemistich«نه رسم کییبُد نه آیین کیش». Despite the fact that bringing beautiful and good-natured girls to the Zahhāk palace from anywhere and provoking them as a housemaid is a cruel affair with regard to the social structure and ritualism of the ancient times - and not with the contemporary look and analysis - it is not contrary to the custom of that time to regard it as the inalienable inwards of Zahhāk. There is evidence that both righteous and authoritarian kings, both in national/ narrative and in the real history of Iran, brought beautiful girls and women from different areas of their realms to their courts and took them as servants or spouses. Probably the reading and recording of the second hemistich of the second verse of those four verses is correct as follows: «به کُشتی که با دیو برخاستی» And we should consider it in the sense of the "ability to wrest" of the warrior with demon and his description as mentioned in the first hemistich, and we should interpret each of the four verses continuously. The quotes confirming this recording and meaning are: A) Register more copies of the bits. B) Similar to the semantic and syntactic aspects of the works being studied, elsewhere in the Shahnameh. The quotes confirming this recording and meaning are: A) In most versions «بکشتی که با دیو برخاستی»is recorded. B) There is similar semantics and syntactic structure of the studied hemistich at the other part of the Shahnameh. Several scribes and readers also deduced from the second hemistich the subject of the "Battle" of the first hemistich with a demon, based on the recordings of some versions of Shahnameh in the tradition of its reading. With the explanations and reasons presented, recording, reading, marking and meaning of the four verses will be discussed as follows: پس آیین ضحّاک وارونهخوی ز مردان جنگی یکی خواستی کجا نامور دختری خوبروی پرستنده کردیش در پیش خویش چنان بُد که چون میبُدیش آرزوی - به کشتی که با دیو برخاستی- به پرده اندرون پاک؛ بیگفتوگوی نه رسم کییبُد نه آیین کیش That is, the manner of ill-natured Zahhāk was so bad that when his lust provoked, he summoned one of the warrior men who could wrestle with demon, and then, whenever there was a beautiful and pure girl, he immediately forced her into the intercourse with the man in his presence, and in this regard, his behavior was neither in accordance with the dignity and conduct of the king, nor with religious principles. Notes [1]. It is the name traditionally given to an encyclopedic collection of Zoroastrian cosmogony and cosmology written in Book Pahlavi. 2. The Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings", also transliterated Shahnama) is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE. 3. Zahhāk is an evil figure in Persian mythology, evident in ancient Persian folklore as AžiDahāka (Persian: اژی‌دهاک), the name by which he also appears in the texts of the Avesta.
علمی- پژوهشی
Mir Jalil Akrami; Hadi Dini
Abstract
The mystical manifestations of self-control in Attar's Mathnawies (Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr, Ilāhī-Nāma, Asrār-Nāma and Muṣībat-Nāma) Mir-Jalil Akrami1/ Hadi Dini2 1 Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Tabriz University (corresponding author), E-mail:m-akrami@tabrizu.ac.ir 2 M.A. ...
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The mystical manifestations of self-control in Attar's Mathnawies (Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr, Ilāhī-Nāma, Asrār-Nāma and Muṣībat-Nāma) Mir-Jalil Akrami1/ Hadi Dini2 1 Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Tabriz University (corresponding author), E-mail:m-akrami@tabrizu.ac.ir 2 M.A. of Persian Language and Literature, Tabriz University Abstract The most important type of jihad is the struggle against the soul and its desires, and this is of considerable importance that it is regarded as the Greater Jihad. The soul is one of the most fundamental concept in Islamic mysticism Attar-e-Neishaburi has visualized his ideas about the soul in the form of anecdotes, stories, narratives and a plentiful supply of allegories in his Mathnawi's. From his point of view, the desires of the soul are regarded to be the worst enemy of man and an intermediary between Satan and the human beings; the soul is the greatest barrier and obstacle to the perfection of the seeker's paths; not only must the seekers strive to struggle against this enemy, but they must also take care of its invasions. Key words: struggle against the soul, Attar-e-Neishaburi, mystical manifestations. Soul from lexical point of view: From lexical point of view, the word soul has various meanings such as spirit, ego, object truth, blood, flesh, evil eye, intention, disgrace, defect, strength, punishment, magnitude, dominance, venerability (Shad, 1335, vol. 7: 4368-4367) (Ma'alov, 1973: 826), and essence, near, ambition, verdict, punishment, moisture, water, mind, breath of the eternal (Dehkhoda, 1342: under soul). Soul as a mystical term: The mystics and Sufis agree in the fact that the soul is the source of evil, and it is considered to be the cause of the immorality and despicable acts, which is divided into two types: 1) sins 2) immorality like arrogance, envy, stinginess, anger, rancor, and other contemptible meanings in Sharia and wisdom (Hujwīrī, 1992: 246-245). The struggle against the soul (Greater Jihad): Wise men and the mystics believe that self-control is one of the most difficult tasks facing mankind and in order to overcome it, self-improvement and many endeavors are needed; therefore, the uppermost type of jihad is the struggle against the soul and is referred to as the Greater Jihad. The struggle against the soul in Mysticism: The soul has been regarded as the greatest enemy of Man by the mystics, so fighting against it is considered as the greatest jihad. Frequently and in different forms, the seekers were demanded to struggle against the desires of the soul. In all matters of mysticism, self-improvement of the soul has been taken into account. The soul from Attar's perspective: Attar-e-Neishaburi has visualized his ideas about the soul in the form of anecdotes, stories, narratives and a plentiful supply of allegories; and in his tallest story, The Conference of the Birds, he expresses the involvement of Sheikh San'an with the soul and his scandal. In his Mathnawi's, Attar depicts various traits of soul in human existence, such as egotism, ambition, wrath, lust, greed, etc. The inciting nafs (An-nafs al-ʾammārah) is considered by Attar, and the sense of soul in his poems is the inciting nafs, not the self-accusing (An-nafs al-luwwāmah) one; hence, he always condemns and denounces it. According to Attar, the desire of the soul is the worst enemy of mankind which is regarded as an intermediary between Satan and the human beings; it is also the biggest obstacle to the perfection of the seekers. Attar compares the soul to a house full of sensual pleasures and lusts which must be wiped up from the soul desires. In Attar's view, the soul is placed in front of God that the seeker must abandon it and go through the divine's straight path: خدایت گر ازین پرسد مرا گیر فضولی از دماغ ما برون کن (عطار، 1386ب: 105) تو را چند از هوا راه خدا گیر خدایا نفس سرکش را زبون کن The manifestation of struggle against the soul in Attar's Mathnawies: Attar in his mathnawies, which are considered as major mystical sources, orders the seekers of the right way to throw off the veils of the soul, and makes them more familiar with the inciting nafs and its degrading traits. He draws up the various manifestations of this struggle in front of seekers of the truth in order to make it easy to overcome the obstacles and difficulties of this uphill and arduous way. In this section, the most important components of the struggle against the soul are expressed in his four-dimensional mathnawies (Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr, Ilāhī-Nāma, Asrār-NāmaandMuṣībat-Nāma): Self-defeating in mysticism does not mean self-immolation or humiliation; but the main purpose is to subjugate the inciting nafs; in this way, the seeker humiliates the inciting nafs whenever it orders to do sinful and evil deeds, and quarrel with its rebellion so as to shame it from re-ordering misconducts, and lay the grounds for self-perfection. In Asrār-Nāma, Attar says: The soul is like an unbeliever who will never become a Muslim, and should be beheaded. One of the manifestations of piety is giving up the unstable and disloyal world. The seeker should not demand the world, even if the world is looking for it; he should have no desire for the beauty of the world and be deceived by its adornments and blessings. Attar points out that attachment to the world is one of the obstacles to the way of success. Even the smallest belonging to the world will keep the seeker from continuing the journey: لاجرم مهجور معنی آمدی ز آفرینش چشمِ جانِ کُل بدوز نُزل حق هر لحظه بیش آید تو را (عطار، 1386: 262) بستۀ مردار دنیی آمدی هرچه پیشت آید از گرمی بسوز چون بسوزی هرچه پیش آید تو را Leaving greed and ambition: The love of property and position causes the corruption of religion and faith in mankind, which is a means of snobbishness, and it's one of the greatest obstacles in the course of journey. Attar states: leave off the wealth and authorities of the world. Do not depend on anything which is a barrier to the path and leads you astray. Leaving arrogance and pride: Attar believes that pride leads to the disappearance of arrogance and distracts him from knowing the divine. Pride stems from self-control over the soul and sprit of mankind. Proudness leads to self-confidence and makes people ignore the causes of the world: بود آن حضرتش در پیش، بی‌پیش به جوهر از دو گیتی بیش گردد (عطار، 1386 ب: 135) مقرب آن بود کامروز بی‌خویش همه حق بیند و بی‌خویش گردد Poverty: according to Attar, poverty is not meant to be material, but he sees poverty as needing God and not requiring others. From his point of view, poverty means jihad and self-control and the passage from existence to reach God. That is why Attar in Manṭiq-uṭ-Ṭayr calls poverty as the seventh and last resort: بعد ازین روی روش نبود تو را گر بود یک قطره قُلزُم گرددت (عطار، 138۳: 380) هفتمین وادیّ فقر است و فنا در کشش افتی روش گم گرددت
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
Naser Bahrami
Abstract
Investigating Semantic-Pragmatic Functions of Interrogative Sentences (Questions) in Amir Hushang Ebtehaj’s (Sayeh) Poems Naser Bahrami1/ Abdul Nasser Nazariani2 1 Ph.D. Candidate, Urmia University, Lecturer at Farhangian University, (Corresponding Author), E-mail: n.bahrami1345@gmail.com ...
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Investigating Semantic-Pragmatic Functions of Interrogative Sentences (Questions) in Amir Hushang Ebtehaj’s (Sayeh) Poems Naser Bahrami1/ Abdul Nasser Nazariani2 1 Ph.D. Candidate, Urmia University, Lecturer at Farhangian University, (Corresponding Author), E-mail: n.bahrami1345@gmail.com 2 Assistant Professor, Urmia University, E-mail:a.nazariani@urmia.ac.ir Abstract Interrogative sentences are among grammatical categories that occur most frequently in world languages. In Contemporary poetry including those composed by Ebtehaj, sometimes interrogative sentences fulfil semantic-pragmatic functions other than posing questions including surprise, breaking news, disappointment, complaint, objection, warning, rebuke, etc. This study aims at an investigation of the semantic-pragmatic functions that interrogative sentences fulfil in Ebtehaj's poetry. A descriptive-analytic methodology is employed to survey a statistical society that includes the complete poetical works by Ebtehaj. 120 sonnets, 84 Nimai poems, 17 quatrains, 10 couplets and 8 strophes were randomly studied. The results show that in 187 cases, Sayeh used interrogative sentences to fulfil 28 different secondary functions other than interrogation including the following respectively: expressing wish, objection, surprise, complaint, helplessness, doubt, rhetorical questions, disappointment, praise, emphasis, breaking news and attracting attention. Keywords: Ebtehaj, Grammatical categories, Semantic-Pragmatic functions, Questions, Secondary meanings, Contemporary poetry. Interrogative sentences are one of the most commonly used grammatical categories in all the world languages. However, these sentences are mainly interrogative that are used to ask a question. Linguistic typology studies have revealed that interrogative sentences sometimes do not intend to ask anything but are used for exclamation purposes or to inform, to name a few. Semantic science addresses the study of subordinate meanings of sentences. Using a sentence in the figurative sense upsurge the influence of the discourse of the speech, and one of the features that improves the rhetorical style of the speech is to put the words in a meaning other than the one intended. In addition to the main functions, interrogative sentences are used to convey other meanings associated with the knowledge of meanings by taking into account the time and situation of the expression. For the questions are not only used in terms of grammatical or linguistic forms, they are also used in the literary sense. This is what semantic knowledge addresses as the rhetorical questions in which the addresser is not intended to receive information nor to be informed. He prefers to know something more than finding an answer when a question is raised. What distinguishes the linguistic from the literary questions is that the former should be followed by an answer while the latter remains unanswered for good. A question may underlie several secondary intentions by which the appreciation of the intentions of the addresser deals with the various styles of reading, the context and the atmosphere of reading. Questions in contemporary poetry, including Amir Hushang Ebtehaj’s poems, sometimes play semantic-pragmatic functions and hence are not asked in terms of questions, but to surprise, inform, make disappointment, express grievance, protest, rebuke, blame, and so on. Given that most of the researches conducted to study Ebtehaj’s poems have considered the social issues and symbolism, it can be claimed that few studies have taken into account the meaning of knowledge (semantic-pragmatic functions of questions) in his works. However, questions are of particular importance in Amir Hushang Ebtehaj (Sayeh) poems, so there are sonnets in which all or almost all the verses mainly ask questions (i.e. sonnets of the Broken Flute, All Spring, Sorrowful Sunset, In the Sedition of the Resurrection, and the Flaw Reflecting Mirror). Accordingly, the recognition and appreciation of the secondary and literary meanings of the questions proposed in Amir Hushang Ebtehaj (Sayeh) poems can help us to appreciate his thoughts and his poetic talents. This research aims to study and recognize the semantic-pragmatic functions categories of questions in the poems of Amir Hushang Ebtehaj (Sayeh). The applied research method is descriptive-analytic and the statistical population consists of all the poet’s collections. To do so, 120 lyrics, 84 Free Verses, 17 Couplets, 10 Mathnawis and 8 Pieces were randomly selected and analyzed. 187 cases were detected in which Sayeh used questions to express the secondary meaning. The results of the research show that the poet has applied almost 28 functions of the secondary meaning in interrogative sentences. The statistical analysis of the data indicates that the most frequent functions of the secondary meaning or intentions of the questions are as follows: 1- Wish: 33 questions (13%), 2- Protest: 33 questions (13%), 3- Wonder: 33 questions (13%), 4- Complaint: the complaint has been reiterated 28 times (11%), 5- Helplessness: 24 questions (9%), 6- Hesitation: 20 questions (7%), 7- Denial: 19 questions (7%), 8- Despair: 18 items (7%), 9- Curtsy: 8 questions (3%), 10- To emphasize on the news and draw attention: 8 questions (3%), 11-Concern: 8 questions (3%), 12- Apprehension: This question is asked 7 times (2.5%), 13. Sadness and Gloominess: This question has been asked 7 times (2.5%), 14- Contradictions and Resignation: 6 times (2%) percent, 15- Rebuking and blaming: 4 questions (1.5%), 16- Negation: 4 questions (1.5%), 17- Humor and humiliation: 4 questions (1.5%), 18- Repentance: 4 questions (1.5%), 19- Pity and sympathy: This question has been repeated 4 times (1.5%), 20- Pain and regret: 4 questions (1.5%), 21- Foolishness: 3 times (1%), 22- Exaggeration: 3 times (1%), 23- Feeling proud: 3 times (1%), 24- Feelings of grief and sadness: 2 times (5%), 25- Euphoria and Joy: 2 times (5%), 26. Waiting: in this study 2 times (5%), 27. Settlement or clearing: in this study 2 times (5%), and 28- Shame: this question has been used just once.
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
dadyar hamedi; mir jalal oddin kazzazi; gholamreza salemian
Abstract
Epic Elements in Simin Behbahani's GHAZAL AbstractThe use of epic elements is one of the features of today's ghazall. SiminBehbahani is a poet who has paid special attention to this. He uses rhetoricalelements such as exaggerations and blessings to describe the phenomena ofnature in terms of specific ...
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Epic Elements in Simin Behbahani's GHAZAL AbstractThe use of epic elements is one of the features of today's ghazall. SiminBehbahani is a poet who has paid special attention to this. He uses rhetoricalelements such as exaggerations and blessings to describe the phenomena ofnature in terms of specific epic and warfare. The simplicity of likeness inBehbahani's sonnets and the use of epic compatible pseudo-shapes reinforcesher epic tune of her sonnets; besides, the use of magnificent and magnificentpuzzles affects this. Also, Behbahani sometimes expresses the epic themes ofhis sonnets, with the proper use of reverberant weights. The poet's Irandostyhas led him to give special attention to the myths of ancient Iran. In hissonnets, the battle with the evil forces and the Divan can be seen and there arereferences to the mythical and epic characters. Sometimes myths such asRustam and Zahak have been shown in a different way from their original.Keywords: Epic, Behbahani, Ghazal.16 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019IntroductionEpic is one of the earliest literary genres. Some scholars believe thatnowadays the period of epic poetry has come to an end; this claim isnot aberrant, because epic poetry is glorified on a special social baseand only if that foundation is procured, an individual endeavor or apolitical support could lead somewhere. However, some of the elementsin epic poetry are noticeable in contemporary poems and odes.Nevertheless the content of epic poetry is so vast and copious that onecannot claim that the epic and ode are the same thing. To illustrate thesematters, the best kind of poetry is Masnavi (a poetic rhym form almostlike couplets). The reason is that poets do not have to cope with thedifficulties of rhyming while composing poems in this form and are ableto recite thousands of lines, while ode is too short to entail epic stories.To describe these cases, Masnavi is the most appropriate poeticform. Because poets do not get caught up when they compose this formof poetry and compose thousands of lines but ode is so short that thereis no room for dealing with epic stories. The matters discussed in odein classical literature mostly deal with love and mysticism, so in thecategorization of literary genres, they are considered as lyric poetry.Despite this fact, from very old times the elements of epic poetry isnoticeable in ode. Epic is defined as the conflict of antagonists. Thisconflict in mysticism and in ode is depicted as an inner struggle of anindividual with himself and is the most common form of emanation ofepic in classic ode. After constitutionalism, the Iranian society hasundergone many political and social changes. Fundamental changes ineducation and some people’s familiarity with other cultures have led toapparition of newfangled values such as freedom and justice, andresulted in protest against political system. Reflections of these protestscan be seen in constitutional poets. In Pahlavi’s era, the protests weredivulged more than before and the known poets of the era, most ofwhom were modernizers, recited poetry with collectivist and opposingtendencies. Gradually the conflict between modernized poets andleaders created a new form of epic which was not that much commonin the past. Most of the modernist poets such as Nima, Shamloo andAkhavan considered poetry a social function beside their concentrationon creativity and aesthetic aspect of poetry .They used it as a means todeclare their socio-political objections; this continued to be the caseuntil the Islamic revolution. After the revolution, poets mostlyemployed classical forms, like ode, to declare the epics duringEpic Elements in Behbahani's Ghazal 17revolution and exigent war; the thorough revolutionary excitement andthe noticeable increase of the audience can be counted as the reasons.These audience, unlike the more specific audience of the modernpoetry, are more accustomed to traditional forms and as a result aremore likely among those people who connect mostly with odes. Fromnow on, epic isn’t restricted just too mystical odes or inner conflict ofthe poet. The poets of modern world watch human ideals in an outerdomain. And in accordance with the alternations of the age, they fightwith admonitions such as autocracy, injustice, enormity and invasion.Simin Behbahani is one of the contemporary poetesses whose workscarry an epic tone. The influence of her work on the literary flow ofodes is undeniable. She elicited a new look from this form byfabricating new rhymes in order to bring up new debates. Romanticismwas bold in her early works. It appeared mostly in the form of personalapprehensions like love issues which also took social deductions oncouplets. We face cases like women who turn toward degeneration orthe tears of a student who is fed up with poverty and misery. Thesepoems are thematically remonstrant but they contain an inactive andaccordant tone. She does not convey romantic sighs after writing thebook "A line of speed and fire". Instead, her odes start to deliver an epictone. Since then all her work has been in epic language, a language thatbelongs to herself.The aim of this research is to investigate the elements whichinfluenced the epic tone in Behbahani's work.FindingsBehbahani has paid attention to epic elements in many of her odes. Inorder to do that she has used factors like exaggeration, description, mythand simile.Her use of exaggeration is not simply limited to physical powers,just unlike the exaggeration in the old poems. The ability of her heroesis not simply because of facing enemies like Dragons or crossingimpracticable roads one after another. These heroes contend withcruelty and scarify themselves for ideals like equality and freedom.Based on the fact that epic is elicited from myth, she has benefitedfrom the myth of the ancient Iran in her works. For instance, characterslike Zahhak, Rostam, Simorgh and deev have a considerable presencein her work but her approach is completely different from the previousmethods. Her conceptions are sometimes so creative that the myth is18 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019even depicted completely inversely. This can be related directly to thetransformation of the social ideals and values. Simplicity in applyingsimile for subjects like intrepidity, greatness, resilience and solidity inBehbahani's works has strengthened the epic tones of her odes. Thecorrect practice of Simile vehicles was also beneficial.There are also other methods to an epic tone like applying veryrhythmic rhymes. Behbahani is a master of new and rare rhymes andshe uses the meaning of some rhymes to create epic tones.ConclusionSometimes the epic elements are applied in Behbahani's work just theway they were in old literature. Depicting tools like swords, daggersand arrows in order to describe the nature is an example. In some cases,she even uses a new method in articulating epic subjects like using veryrare rhymes just to keep up with the epic tone of the poems.Glorifications that she mentions in her works are not used in orderto prove personal superiorities, but to imply epic and social purposes.Besides, Behbahani sometimes depicts myths like Rostam or Zahhakinversely. This could alone be indicative of the differences of the socialbackground of the poem compared to the old times.
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
Behnoosh Rahimi harsini; Ali Heydari
Abstract
AbstractHafez was bold enough to repeat the meaning (not the words) in the lines ofhis sonnets. His use of synonymous words and phrases is evidence of this fact.Hafez is unique in paying attention to and employing the subtle differencesbetween words which have similar meanings. He not only pays attention ...
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AbstractHafez was bold enough to repeat the meaning (not the words) in the lines ofhis sonnets. His use of synonymous words and phrases is evidence of this fact.Hafez is unique in paying attention to and employing the subtle differencesbetween words which have similar meanings. He not only pays attention tothe synonymous words but also takes account of the opposite meanings ofsuch keywords as synonym; he substitutes apparently synonymous words anduses each word in the appropriate context of words and phrases in the linescomposed. He does not use the similar concepts in the form of a stretch ofwords coming in a sequence. Instead, he substitutes the second word in aseparate sentence with the first word. This is his unique way of creating newmeanings. The arrangement of synonymous words, attending to the subtledifferences between words and their use in appropriate contexts have givenHafez a special ability to create new meanings. This technique has also led tonew paradoxes and sweet scoffing. By so doing, he ascends to the figurativemeaning of the language. This happens in 5% of Hafez’ lines seeking newstructures and meanings.Keywords: Synonym; Substitution; Meaning-creation; Sonnet; Haez.20 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019In total, in the lyrics of Hafez, that is 4193 verses, around 214 verseswith synonyms words or phrases have been used. This numberconstitutes about 5% of his verses. Hafez has considered ways to createsynonymous concepts; for example, he makes sentences, phrases, orsynonymic combinations. Hafez knows that each word has differentsemantic components. Since no two terms are, in all their meanings,mutually conflicting or synonymous, placing synonymous or opposingcomponents creates conflict or synonymy between the words. Bycontrasting synonymous or opposite components, it creates a conflict orsynonymy among words. Hafez has a particular technique in the use ofsynonymous vocabulary. He does not bring the synonymous wordstogether, but he replaces one word with another one in two independentsentences. This makes it possible, in addition, to repeat part of themeaning of a synonym, and the second term also maintains its semanticindependence. This leads to the repetition of a part of the meaning ofthe first word, and the second term also maintains its semanticautonomy. It also shows other dimensions of the meaning of the word.This increases the meaning of the verse. This method gives power toHafiz to create new and multi-lateral meanings. In addition, he alsorecognizes the integrity of a word with semantic and grammaticalcapabilities. In addition, Hafez is familiar with methods for creating asemantic relationship among the words. Hafez, through his close look,sees the hidden virtual relationships among vocabularies, and bysubstituting these words, he brings them together in that part of meaningand relationship. Another point is Hafez's attention to meaningdifference in vocabularies in different contexts. This awareness gavehim the power to even identify conflicting vocabulary (water and fire)in allusion phrases (water of wreckage and fire of the tavern).Sometimes Hafez, in order to create a synonymy between concepts,uses the semantic components of a term in a descriptive phrase orsentence, and he replaces that descriptive phrase or sentence with thatterm. Of course, these descriptive phrases do not always refer to the truemeaning of the word. Sometimes these descriptive phrases signify theallusive meaning of the word. This method is equivalent to descriptivesemantics which linguists interpret as semantic descriptive or analytic.The last point is that Hafez, for the sole purpose of interpreting theSubstituting Synonymous Vocabulary in Hafez's Sonnets 21vocabulary, does not use synonymous concepts; but, using thesynonymous concepts substitution method, he uses the word andmeaning to serve rhetorical performances in his verses. We refer to anumber of artistic functions of this method:1. Creating paradox and wonder in the meaning of the verse.2. In synonymizing vocabulary, he considers the differentsemantic functions of words. And by replacing the vocabulary,in addition to the common meaning, he also uses differentmeanings. This adds up to the scope of the meaning of verse3. Sometimes he substitute two-dimensional vocabulary and inaddition to syntax, also creates ambiguity. In Hafez's verses,about 28 percent of synonyms are also ambiguous.4. The vocabulary also replaces each other with different semanticdomains.5. Sometimes, he replaces descriptive combinations and phraseswith vocabulary and phrases for synonyms.6. Hafez, in addition to creating synonyms, also considers thephonetic proportions, and the increase of verse music; hence, inthe choice of vocabulary, he attends to verbal proportions withother vocabulary.7. The most important point to be considered is proportions. Thismeans that Hafez has a comprehensive understanding of words;and knows semantic functions of the word and knows minordifferences in synonyms; he knows what a low or high meaninga word has or for which context it is more suitable.The abundance of synonymous meanings in Hafez's sonnets Title The number of lines Percentage Synonym 167 78% ambiguity andsynonyms 47 22% Total 214 100%
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
hasan shamiyan; samaneh jafari
Abstract
AbstractNafthat-Al-Masdur is one of the most renowned masterpieces of technical andartistic prose in the field of Persian language and literature that ShihaboddinMohammad Khorandezi zeydari Nasawi has written in the description of thetragedies of Jalal al-din Khwarazmshah during the Mongol invasion.Thisbook ...
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AbstractNafthat-Al-Masdur is one of the most renowned masterpieces of technical andartistic prose in the field of Persian language and literature that ShihaboddinMohammad Khorandezi zeydari Nasawi has written in the description of thetragedies of Jalal al-din Khwarazmshah during the Mongol invasion.Thisbook has a generous and passionate language that the author has devoted a lotto the use of arrays, expressions, verses, hadiths, and Arabic vocabulary andexpressions.The question here is as follows: ʿHas the author followed aparticular pattern in using figures of speech, or has used these elements solelyfor the verbal and spiritual arrangement of his words?’. To answer thisquestion we should say that the technical language of this work seems to havea coherence and a pattern in it and the author follows the pattern of choosingtechnical, verbal and artistic arrays. On the one hand, he used ironies andsimiles far more than metaphor and trope, and on the other hand, followingthe same pattern he chooses Saj and Pun and uses them for the creation ofmusical language of his work. In the intellectual domain, the use ofexaggeration, assurance, and allusion, which are similar to simile, has madethe similarity of the language of Nafthat-Al-Masdurstronger.Keywords: Nafthat-Al-Masdur, Figures of Speech and Expressions,Deep Construction, Homogeneity, Equivalence.24 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019Discussion and conclusionFamiliarity with the profound and constructive method of a poet and awriter's language has a significant effect on recognizing his work, howto read the text, and creating a dynamic connection with it. It is alsoeffective on the discovering of relationship among its constituents inthree phases of phoneme, lexicon and the syntax found in that work, aswell as its psychological dimensions.The language of Nafthat-Al-Masdur in two phases of Figures ofSpeech and Expressions is profoundly similar, in the sense thatsimilarity is the main factor in the selection of words and theirarrangement in the synchronic language. This parallelism pattern in therhetorical domain has made the two methods of Saj and Pun aprominent factor in the language. Hence the phonetic consistencybetween the lexicon creates a sound and sorrow that was caused by theMongol invasion of Iran, and in line with this music, in the spiritualdomain, the exaggerated words of the writer has been a reflection ofsimile in his work. The language of the Nafthat-Al-Masdurinexpressing and application of its array is also subject to the similaritypattern governing this work and its psychological effect is doubled.Zeydari prefers ironies and similes more than metaphor and trope.Because the profound construction of simile, like Saj and Punand ...,isbased on similes while metaphor and trope and other exemplary verbalarrays have the same profound construction.The reason for choosing this method of expression in Nafthat-AlMasdur is, on the one hand, the greater and better impact on theaudience, understanding of the real nature of the Mongol invasion usingthe music derived from the phonetic similarity, and ultimatelyemancipation from the sadness that dictates the soul and heart of theauthor. And this is also quite evident from the name of the work, whichmeans "it leaves out what it does with pulmonary disease, from thesputum and itself to make it a little relaxing."
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
Allahkaram Abasi; mahboobeh khorasani; Mahmud Heydari
Abstract
AbstractEach literary work is a sign of its writer’ ideology and thoughts, and is basedon the social and political context of the community. Reza Baraheni, theauthor of the Novel “Mysteries of My Land”, as a social reformer, influencedby the atmosphere of the ruling community in Iran, ...
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AbstractEach literary work is a sign of its writer’ ideology and thoughts, and is basedon the social and political context of the community. Reza Baraheni, theauthor of the Novel “Mysteries of My Land”, as a social reformer, influencedby the atmosphere of the ruling community in Iran, especially Tabriz duringthe years from 1959 to 1979, expressed his social-political ideas with the aimof reforming society. Thus analyzing the writer’s thoughts is important fromthe point of view of post-colonial literature. The present study is done via thecontent analysis method to investigate the intellectual themes of the novel,such as tradition and modernity, social disadvantages, status of women insociety, Self and the Other, apolitism, lack of self-esteem, and subaltern andhegemony, and anti-colonialism .The research results depict that this novel,drawing on the components of post-colonial literature, illustrates themes suchas the confrontation between tradition and modernity, the male dominance ofthe traditional society, western subaltern and hegemony, moral issues, lack ofself-esteem, and identity fragmentation. But, on the contrary, relying onmythological beliefs and ideas to achieve the former identity, the novel alsopromotes the struggle against the belief in the supremacy of Western race aswell as anti-colonialism.Keywords: literary criticism, postcolonial literature, ideology, RezaBaraheni, Mysteries of My Land28 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019The novel “Mysteries of My Land" can be a true reflection of thesociety, traditions, customs and reactions of the people of Tabriz duringthe above-mentioned twenty years, i.e. from 1959 to 1979. In fact, theinfluence of the westerns in Iran began almost two hundred years agoalong with Russian wars with Iran, but its peak and intensity started in1941, when and also thereafter, the British and Russians forces werepresent in the west and north of Iran. Some writers such as Al-e Ahmad,Barahani, Sa'edi, Daneshvar and Ravanipour responded to the influenceof foreigners in Iran during this period, and produced works with thethemes among which the postcolonial themes are the most strikingaspects of storytelling. Accordingly, the questions raised in this studyare as follows: What are the components of postcolonial literature inReza Baraheni's novel? What are the social and political fields affectingthis novel? How did the Iranian society, especially in Tabriz, treatedcolonialism and colonialists?Postcolonial literature, expressing liberation and freedom fromcolonialism and gaining the political and cultural independence ofpeoples under the colonial rule, extends to its own themes and differentstyles. Consequently, postcolonial theory is one of the most importantliterary theories coexisting with the postmodern era, especially sincestructuralism shaded on the field of Western culture and the "whitemyth", and introduced the West as the source of science, knowledge,and philosophy, and the birthplace of theories and methods. This typeof literature, aiming to illegitimate the power of colonialism by forceand nation-building, has completely historical implications, notifyingthe post-independence period. Therefore, the intellectual themes of thenovel of “Mysteries of My Land” by Reza Baraheni can be consideredas components of post-colonial criticism such as tradition andmodernity, social disadvantages, status of women in society, Self andthe Other, apolitism, lack of self-esteem, subaltern and hegemony, andanti-colonialism.This novel is a realist one that sometimes comes near magicalrealism. Baraheni considers events as an evolutionary process, not as aseries of distinct phenomena that are related to each other and thehistorical conditions, in a way that the contradiction and solidarity ofsocial life are introduced. Although this work can be consideredPostcolonial Criticism of the Novel "The Secrets of My Land'… 29magical realism in terms of mythical components, which is one of theroots of indigenous culture, its realism is more highlighted based on thememories and narratives of the characters.Reza Baraheni pursued another goal in the face of seeminglypolitical events and with the abundance of words in texts. In addition tohis pencils, he induces his thoughts to the reader, and, with the politicaland social goals, expresses these positions depending on the narrationof each character. Positions reflecting the writer’s ideology are politicalfrom several perspectives:a. In the opening part of the novel, which is narrated with the thirdperson narrative mode, it reflects Baraheni’s opposition with theAmericans and his convergence with the Soviet Union, as it isclearly visible in the dialogue between the interpreter and Davis,the American. In the novel, Baraheni is constantly talking aboutthe disagreements of the Americans with Iran, but there is noplace in the novel about the dispute between Iran and the SovietUnion, and in reality, Gorg (Wolf) the Alien Killer, is a"socialist nationalist" who killed a Russian Cossack, not asoldier from the Soviet Union.b. In addition to the idea of the struggle against colonialism whichcame through championship of Gorg the Alien Killer,Baraheni’s political thoughts deal with the struggle against theruling regime; that is, Baraheni discussed intellectualdisagreements with the regime of Pahlavi and their governmentofficials. The novel, from the section of the American Captainand Iranian Colonel, gradually criticizes the ruling governmentin the context of the social and economic problems.c. Another case that can introduce us to another approach toBaraheni's political thoughts in this novel is the characters’efforts to achieve revolution. He gives a glimpse of a revolutionin the great part of the novel, either by bringing in dreams anddreams, or by events and letters, which must be tolerated inorder to achieve that demonstration. Baraheni predictsrevolution in the dream of Hossein Mirza as the symbol of therhythm of miserable life of the masses. Thus, he portrays therevolution that he sees in Hossein Mirza’s dream about after the30 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019demonstrations and events, attaches it to the first issue, i.e. thecolonialists’ struggle with the national spirit, and knows Gorgthe Alien Killer as its protector.In addition, in a specific style derived from Baraheni’s own ideologytowards the ruling government and the Westerners, there is a picture ofhis socialist thought, the nationality of the people, distancing from thecolonialism of the West and the achievement of freedom. This isbecause his ideology sought to signify the social and economicdisadvantages, subaltern and hegemony, and the issue of supremacy ofthe superior race and position of women in the society, which ultimatelyendowed with the spirit of anti-colonialism and identity recognition,wisdom and the mercenary of Gorg the AlienKiller, i.e. the embodimentof the Iranians’ eternal anger and hatred of the invading aliens and thedefeat of colonialism. The research results depict that this novel,drawing on the components of post-colonial literature, illustratesthemes such as the confrontation between tradition and modernity, themale dominance of the traditional society, western subaltern andhegemony, moral issues, lack of self-esteem, and identityfragmentation. But, on the contrary, relying on mythological beliefs andideas to achieve the former identity, the novel also promotes thestruggle against belief in the supremacy of Western race as well as anticolonialism.
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
razie fani aski; firooz fazeli; mahmood ranjbar
Abstract
A study of Situational Irony in Maroufie’s Stories:Year of Turmoil and Symphony of the DeadRaziyeh Fani1/ Firooz Fazeli2/ Mahmood Ranjbar31 Ph.D Candidate of Persian Language and Literature, Guilan University,(corresponding author), E-mail: raziefani@yahoo.com2 Assistant Professor of Persian Language ...
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A study of Situational Irony in Maroufie’s Stories:Year of Turmoil and Symphony of the DeadRaziyeh Fani1/ Firooz Fazeli2/ Mahmood Ranjbar31 Ph.D Candidate of Persian Language and Literature, Guilan University,(corresponding author), E-mail: raziefani@yahoo.com2 Assistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Guilan University,E-mail: drfiroozfazeli@yahoo.com3 Assistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Guilan University,E-mail: mamranjbar@gmail.comAbstractSituational irony is the result of phantasms, imaginations and concepts. Thissort of irony has an especial place in fiction. The two stories of "Year ofTurmoil "and “Symphony of the Dead" by Maroufie have an especial positionin fiction because of their critical language and the author’s authority indemonstrating specific problems. Personification, scene, plot and actions inthis work have potential power for irony of situation and grotesque showing.Therefore we endeavor to indicate all kinds of ironical situations andgrotesque in this research, methods of creating them and theme’s socialreflections. With deliberation in these stories, we see that ironical names andbehaviors are the dominant factors in the creation of situational irony in thesestories. Character’s experiments and network of communication betweenthem have important roles in ironical behavior, action, situation, scene anddialogue. But character’s situation is the pivotal point. The most importantsubjects that are writer’s purpose are: culture and jeopardy of society,modernism, lack of justice and existence of corruption among diverse classesin society.Key words: situational Irony, " Year of Turmoil” “Symphony of theDead”, Contemporary fiction, MAROUFI32 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019Situational irony concerns what it is about situation that causes peopleto describe it as ironic. Situational irony is as complex andcommonplace as verbal and literary irony. When someone says thatthey find a situation, they mean that their conception of it defies thenormal way in which situations fit with their repertoire of concepts, thatthis misfit is noticeable in some way, that is evokes a particular kind ofemotional response, and perhaps, that it has a specific moralsignificance. For example, let’s consider a situation in whichfirefighters had a fire in their kitchen due to some chicken fingers leftcooking while they went out to answer a fire alarm. We usually thinkof firemen as people who put out fires, not as people who start them.This situation evokes a particular kind of emotional response. In thispaper, we try to find the ironical situations in two of Abbas Maroufi’sstories: "Year of Turmoil" and "Symphony of the Dead". These twoworks have an especial position in fiction because of their criticallanguage and the author’s authority in demonstrating specific problems.Moreover Maroufie’s position as a writer was confirmed by writingthese two stories. In "Year of Turmoil", he narrates one accidence fromseveral characters’ points of view. The original character in this story isa young poet that queers in his father’s displeasure. In his another work,i.e. "Symphony of the Dead", Maroufi had utilized historical myths.Hence he could illustrate the historical and sociological qualificationsof Iran in the Second World War and in Reza Shah’s dominance. In thisessay, we endeavor to indicate all kinds of ironical situations andgrotesque in this research, methods of creating them and theme’s socialreflections. In personification, Maroufi selected his characters fromdiverse types, professions, situations and dissimilar age groups toaccess to an ironical space. Moreover he selected various entrustmentand disparate behaviors. This technical work commanded an oppositeand grotesque space in stories with deliberation. In these stories, we seethat ironical names and behaviors are the dominant factor of creation ofsituational irony. Characters’ experiments and network ofcommunication between them have important roles in ironicalbehaviors, action, situation, scene and dialogue. Credulous andridiculous behaviors, surprises and actions that scintillate from tensionand infuriation or jitters, have an important role in making situationalirony in Maroufie’s story. Scene, backward or opposite values in plotand actions in this work have potential power for irony of situation andgrotesque showing. Therewith abnormal conversations that areA study of Situational Irony in Maroufie’s Stories… 33discordant with situations are dominant cases for creating ironicalsituations but character’s situation is the pivotal point and otherformation. The most important subjects that are writer’s purpose are:culture and jeopardy of society, modernism, lack of justice andexistence of corruption among diverse classes in the society.
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
alireza ghojezade
Abstract
Literary Legacy of Abd al-Majid Tabrizi(Persian Poet of Azerbaijan in the 8th/14thcentury)Alireza GhojezadehAssistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature,Islamic Azad University, Varamin-Pishva Branch, Tehran, Iran.E-mail Address: alirezaghojezade@yahoo.comAbstractAbdolmajid Tabrizi, ...
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Literary Legacy of Abd al-Majid Tabrizi(Persian Poet of Azerbaijan in the 8th/14thcentury)Alireza GhojezadehAssistant Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature,Islamic Azad University, Varamin-Pishva Branch, Tehran, Iran.E-mail Address: alirezaghojezade@yahoo.comAbstractAbdolmajid Tabrizi, a less well-known poet of the 8th century AD. Is. Thereis not much information about him. About 699 AH. He was born in Tabriz andprobably between 757 and 768 AH. In the past, what is his poem is that hewas engaged in farming and at the age of 55 he went over to Hajj, and afterreturning from the pilgrimage of the house of God, he went to Shiraz and spentsome time there. In various forms of poetry, such as poetry, sonnets,compositions, pieces, masnavi and quatrains, they have experimented withvarious concepts and subjects, including the prayer of God, the promise of theHoly Prophet (s), the exhortation of the rulers, love, mysticism, counsel andWisdom forms the theme of his poems. In the chanting, followers of suchpoets as Elementary, Anvari, Zahir Faryabi, and in Ghazalsarai, are the metatags of Saadi's lyrics. His contemporary poets like Hafez have also beeninfluenced by his poems.Keywords: Abd al-Majid Tabrizi, Tabriz, Persian poetry, Al-e Jalayer36 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019Abd al-Majid Tabrizi is a less known poet of the 8th/14thcentury. Thereis little information available on his life. We know that he was born in699/1300 in Tabriz, and probably died around 757/1356 to 768/1367. Itis understood from his poems that he was engaged in agriculture, madea pilgrimage to Mecca when he was 55 years old, and stayed in Shirazfor a while on his return. He was a devout and pious Sunni Muslim, andthere are signs of his deep devotion to the Prophet Muhammad and hishousehold in his poetry.He has attempted with different poetic forms such as odes (qasidah),sonnets (ghazal), refrained verse (tarkib band), couplets (mathnavi),and quatrains (ruba’i). Praising God, describing virtues of the Prophet,eulogizing statesmen, love, mysticism, admonitions, and morals formthe main themes of his poetry.Abd al-Majid’s collection of poems (Diwan) consists of 4405 verses(bayts) of poetry in various poetic forms of ode, sonnet, refrained verse,fragments, couplets, quatrains, and simple distiches (mufradat). Hisodes are mostly of panegyric nature written in high praise ofdistinguished personalities and statesmen, but some of them eulogizevirtues of the Prophet Muhammad and his greatness as the Noblest ofall Creatures. There are only 22 odes among the 666 bayts in his extantcollection of poems though, according to Abd al-Majid himself, he hadwritten greater number of odes.There is a 98-bayt refrained verse in his collection of poems which dealswith the virtues of the Prophet. His fragments also deal with variousthemes such as giving up writing poetry, complaining aboutineffectiveness of his poems on ordinary people, disapproving of theworldly life and its ephemeral nature, self-glorifying, praising SheikhUways and Rukn al-Din and others, speaking about his occupation,describing the sites and landscapes of Tabriz, lamenting the ruins,remembering God, describing stages of pilgrimage to Mecca, practicingcontentment, describing horses, and the like.Abd al-Majid’s couplets (mathnavis) also deal with various themes. Thefirst mathnavi in his collection is about the invasion of Tabriz by MalekAshraf and Yaghibasti in 743 and the destruction and murder of itsLiterary Legacy of Abd al-Majid Tabrizi 37people. The second mathnavi recounts the poet’s pilgrimage to Meccain 754/1353 when he was 55 years old, and his return home duringwhich he saw the fantastic sites of KuhLur, Shul, and Kurd, and stayedin Shiraz for a while. The third mathnavi describes the serenity andverdurous nature of Tabriz, the poet’s hometown, when he is old. Thefourth, fifth, sixth and ninth mathnavis deal with the theme of blamingthe arrogant self, repentance of past deeds, complaining about the oldage, and seeking God’s asylum. The seventh mathnavi describes theHouse of God clad with black curtains, and the eighth mathnaviaddresses the month of spring and separation from the beloved.Sixty two quatrains (ruba’i) and single distiches (bayt) have come downto us from Abd al-Majid that also deal with the separation from andreunion with the beloved, blaming the arrogant self, disapproval ofworldly life, description of the beauty of the beloved, complainingabout the old age, praising God, longing to return to Tabriz from Shirazand the like.He followed poets like Unsuri, Anwari, Zahir Faryabi in his odes, andimitated Sa’di in his sonnets (ghazal). Contemporary poets like Hafizwere influenced by his poetry. He wrote his odes in eloquent languagefull of figurative devices and new poetic imagery. The most frequentlyused literary device in his poems is simile. His sonnets (ghazal), likethat of his contemporaries, mostly deal with the subject of love with atouch of mysticism.Although Abd al-Majid has praised several statesmen, commanders,and scholars of his time including Muiz al-Din Uways (739-776/1338-1374), Rukn al-Din Ala al-Dulah Simnani, and Delshad Khatun, hedoes not consider himself a panegyrist and believes that his poems dealmostly with morals and moral lessons.Abd al-Majid was born and brought up in Tabriz and he does not hidehis attachment to the city and its fantastic landscape with its high-risepalaces and mansions. He calls Tabriz dar al-aman (House of Safety)and dar al-Islam (House of Islam) in his poems and beautifullydescribes its natural geography for his readers.38 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019His life, especially when he was 36, coincided with the decline of theMongol Ilkhanid rule and their appointed rulers in Iran. Heeyewitnessed many of the events that happened in Azerbaijan,especially in Tabriz and recounted them in his verse which are highlycreditable.There are three known manuscripts of Abd al-Majid’s Diwan:1. Manuscript of the Mellat Library in Istanbul. It was copied inthe first half of 9th/15thcentury and consists of 22 odes, 286sonnets, 1 refrained verse, 8 mathnavis, and 47 quatrains.2. Manuscript of the Halat Effendi Library in Istanbul in thecollection of Diwans kept under no. 699. It was copied in950/1543 by Murshid Amir Sheikh Katib Shirazi and consistsof 302 sonnets, 5 mathnavis, 53 quatrains, and 1 distich.3. Manuscript of the Library of Istanbul University in thecollection of Diwans kept under no. 485. It was copied in1307/1890 by Ibad Mirza Aqakhan Kirmani and consists of 303sonnets, 4 mathnavis, 53 quatrains, and 1 distich.In addition to these manuscripts, some of Abd al-Majid’s poems havebeen recorded in literary and historical sources including collection no.280 kept in the Chalabi Abdullah Library in Istanbul, Iskandar Mirza’sJung (Literary Anthology) kept in the British Library under no. 27261,and Majmu'ah-'i litafat va manzumah-'i zirafat kept in Cambridgeuniversity Library under no. 657.
علمی- پژوهشی
Contemporary Poetry of Iran
Naser Naseri; Sakineh Sherafati
Abstract
The Use of Vocabularies in Symphony of the Deadby Abbass Maroufi: from the language and Gender PerspectivesNaser Naseri1/ Sakineh Sharafati21 Assistant professor of Persian Language and Literature, Islamic AzadUniversity, Khouy Branch, Khouy, Iran (corresponding author), E-mail:nasernaseri43@gmail.com2 ...
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The Use of Vocabularies in Symphony of the Deadby Abbass Maroufi: from the language and Gender PerspectivesNaser Naseri1/ Sakineh Sharafati21 Assistant professor of Persian Language and Literature, Islamic AzadUniversity, Khouy Branch, Khouy, Iran (corresponding author), E-mail:nasernaseri43@gmail.com2 M.A student of Persian Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University,Khouy Branch, Khouy, Iran, E-mail: shahdeadab@gmail.comAbstractLanguage is considered as one of the fundamental elements in fiction writing.One of the important issues in investigating language is paying attention tothe relationship between gender and language. Most researchers believe thatthere is a significant difference between the men and the women language andwriting. This article aimed at examining men and women language differencesin the scope of the use of vocabularies from language and gender perspectivesin the "Symphony of the Dead" written by Abbass Maroufi. The authors havetried to analyze the differences in the vocabularies used by women and menin this novel including variables such as color words, taboo words (vulgar andnon-vulgar), swear words, affirmations , moderators, imperative andauthoritative words, affective traits and words in the dialogues among thenovel characters according to the linguistic scientific rules. Although AbbassMaroufi has created a language proportionate with his protagonists’ gender,he has not succeeded in the creation of a language proportional with hisprotagonists in some cases due to inattention to the scientific findings ofsociolinguists, especially in terms of the relationships between language andgender.Keywords: Abbass Maroufi, “Symphony of the Dead”, gender, malelanguage, female language40 Persian Language and Literature, Vol. 71, Issue 238, Fall & Winter 2018- 2019Abbass Maroufi, as a contemporary fiction writer, playwright andjournalist, was born on May 17th, 1957in Sangsar, Semnan. He studieddramatic arts at Tehran University. “Sociolinguistics is a field whichstudies the relationship between the language and the society and also,the relationship between the linguistic usage and social structures(Trudgill, 1976:1)”. One of the fundamental issues in sociolinguisticsis gender. In this research, the dialogues among the protagonists in thisnovel have been studied in terms of language and gender in the scopeof vocabularies including variables such as taboo words (vulgar andnon-vulgar), swear words, affirmations , moderators, imperative andauthoritative words, affective traits and words. Taboo words areunpleasant and violent ones the use of which is considered rude andindecent in the society. Linguists believe that women tend to use politeand cultured forms of language innately and in contrary, men tend touse taboo words. The statistics show that women use taboo words muchless than men, i.e. 12.7% for women and 87.3% for men. Swear wordsare phrases that a speaker uses for more emphasis, when it is probablethat the hearer considers them with doubt. The results of the researchby Gom (1981) indicated that, contrary to the common belief, men usethe swear words more than women. The studies showed that men swearwith 19 swear words compared with women with 3 swear words, andthe color words used by women are more diluted than the ones used bymen. The color words employed by women are 70% higher than thoseused by men as 30%. These findings are consistent with the linguisticstheories. Moderators are linguistic forms that express the speaker’suncertainty. The frequency of the application of these words in maledialogues is 75% and it is 25% in female dialogues, contrary to theLakoff and Fishman and other linguistics research results. Themoderators have not been used correctly in the dialogues among thecharacters in this novel. The writer could not have used the moderatorsproportionate with the characters gender. Affirmations (shortresponses) are phrases depicting the positive attention of the hearer tothe speaker. Examining the affirmations in this novel showed that themake characters have used 80% and the female characters have used20% affirmations.Linguists describe the male language as authoritative and imperativeand the female language as supportive and participatory. Theauthoritative language data in this novel depict that the maleauthoritative language use was 75% and the female one was 25% andThe Use of Vocabularies in Symphony of the Dead… 41the writer has succeeded in the application of the authoritative andimperative forms consistent with the linguists’ theories.ConclusionAbbass Maroufi, the writer of the Symphony of the Dead, has beensuccessful in use of taboo words, swear words, color words andauthoritative and imperative language and this application is consistentwith the linguistic studies; however, he was unsuccessful in theapplication of the variables of moderators and affirmations andconsistency with the linguists standards.
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Content of No. 238
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Content of No. 238
